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Violence against women (VAW) is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a hate crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victim's gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states that: :"violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women" and that "violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=A/RES/48/104 - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women )〕 Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, declared in a 2006 report posted on the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) website that: Violence against women and girls is a problem of pandemic proportions. At least one out of every three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into several broad categories. These include violence carried out by "individuals" as well as "states". Some of the forms of violence perpetrated by individuals are rape; domestic violence; sexual harassment; coercive use of contraceptives; female infanticide; prenatal sex selection; obstetric violence and mob violence; as well as harmful customary or traditional practices such as honor killings, dowry violence, female genital mutilation, marriage by abduction and forced marriage. Some forms of violence are perpetrated or condoned by the state such as war rape; sexual violence and sexual slavery during conflict; forced sterilization; forced abortion; violence by the police and authoritative personnel; stoning and flogging. Many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks.〔Prügl, E. (Director) (November 25, 2013). Violence Against Women. Gender and International Affairs Class 2013. Lecture conducted from The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies (IHEID), Geneva, Switzerland.〕 The World Health Organization (WHO), in its research on VAW, categorized it as occurring through five stages of the life cycle: “1) pre-birth, 2) infancy, 3) girlhood, 4) adolescence and adulthood and 5) elderly”〔(1997). (Violence against women: Definition and scope of the problem. ) World Health Organization, 1, 1-3. Retrieved November 30, 2013.〕 In recent years, there has been a trend of approaching VAW at an international level, through instruments such as conventions; or, in the European Union, through directives, such as the directive against sexual harassment,〔Directive 2002/73/EC - equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions ()〕 and the directive against human trafficking.〔("DIRECTIVE 2011/36/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JH" )〕 ==Definition== The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, provides the following definition of violence against women:〔http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm〕 Although the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) includes VAW in its General Recommendations 12 and 19,〔http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/recommendations/〕 and the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action mentions VAW at paragraph 18,〔http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O〕 it was the 1993 United Nations General Assembly resolution on the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women which became the first international instrument to explicitly define VAW and elaborate on the subject.〔http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/global-norms-and-standards〕 Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 ''Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women''〔http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html〕 and by the 2003 Maputo Protocol.〔http://www.achpr.org/files/instruments/women-protocol/achpr_instr_proto_women_eng.pdf〕 In addition, the term ''gender-based violence'' refers to "any acts or threats of acts intended to hurt or make women suffer physically, sexually or psychologically, and which affect women because they are women or affect women disproportionately."〔Richters, J. M. (1994). Women, Culture and Violence; a Development, Health and Human Rights Issue.Women Autonomy Centre (VENA), 1, 1-205.〕 The definition of gender-based violence is most often "used interchangeably with violence against women",〔Krantz, G., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2005). Violence against Women" ''Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health'' 59(10), 818-821. Retrieved November 29, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25570854, pp.818〕 and some articles on VAW reiterate these conceptions by suggesting that men are the main perpetrators of this violence.〔Sen, P. (1998). Development Practice and Violence against Women. Gender and Development, 6(3), 7-16. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030497, pp.7〕 Moreover, the definition stated by the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women also supported the notion that violence is rooted in the inequality between men and women when the term violence is used together with the term 'gender-based.'〔 In ''Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence'', the Council of Europe stipulated that VAW "includes, but is not limited to, the following":〔https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=280915&Site=CM&BackColorInternet=C3C3C3&BackColorIntranet=EDB021&BackColorLogged=F5D383〕 a. violence occurring in the family or domestic unit, including, ''inter alia'', physical and mental aggression, emotional and psychological abuse, rape and sexual abuse, incest, rape between spouses, regular or occasional partners and cohabitants, crimes committed in the name of honour, female genital and sexual mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, such as forced marriages; b. violence occurring within the general community, including, ''inter alia'', rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in institutions or elsewhere trafficking in women for the purposes of sexual exploitation and economic exploitation and sex tourism; c. violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials; d. violation of the human rights of women in situations of armed conflict, in particular the taking of hostages, forced displacement, systematic rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, and trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation and economic exploitation. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and problematic. These definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women.〔Ertürk, Y. (2009). Towards a Post-Patriarchal Gender Order: Confronting the universality and the particularity of violence against women. Sociologisk Forskning, 46(4), 61-70. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20853687, pp.61〕 Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men and that the term ''gender'', as used in ''gender based violence'', only refers to women. Other critics argue that employing the term ''gender'' in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity.〔Visaria, L. (2000). Violence against Women: A Field Study. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(20), 1742-1751. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4409296, pp. 1742〕〔Michau, L. (2007). Approaching Old Problems in New Ways: Community Mobilisation as a Primary Prevention Strategy to Combat Violence against Women. Gender and Development, 15(1), 95-109. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20461184, pp.96〕 There is no widely accepted current definition that covers all the dimensions of gender based violence rather than the one for women that tends to reproduce the concept of binary oppositions: masculinity versus femininity.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「violence against women」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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